Category: Organizational Theory

Exploring Key Theories Shaping Human Motivation

Introduction

The impact of employee motivation on organizational behavior and productivity cannot be understated. This paper delves into three pivotal motivational theories that significantly influence human behavior and have enhanced our comprehension of motivation within contemporary workplaces.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: Unveiling Human Motivational Levels

Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory, encapsulated in a pyramid, outlines five hierarchical levels of human needs. The pyramid’s base comprises basic physiological needs, such as sustenance and shelter, while the pinnacle represents intricate self-actualization needs (Cherry, 2021). These levels encompass:

Physiological needs (food, shelter, etc.),
Safety needs (security, stability, etc.),
Love and belongingness needs (relationships, trust, etc.),
Esteem needs (achievement, status, etc.), and
Self-actualization needs (personal growth, fulfillment, etc.).

This framework distinguishes between deficiency needs (D-needs) and growth or being needs (B-needs). D-needs arise from deprivation and motivate when unmet, while B-needs center on self-actualization and flourish when deficiency needs are satisfied (McLeod, 2020).

McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y: The Managerial Influence

Douglas McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y propose contrasting beliefs that managers hold about employee motivation, influencing their managerial approach.

Theory X assumes that employees inherently dislike work, requiring constant monitoring and direction.
Theory Y views employees positively, promoting self-initiative and participative management.

While Theory X leans on control, Theory Y fosters autonomy and skill development (Theory X and Theory Y, n.d.).

Adams’ Equity Theory:

Balancing Inputs and Outputs John Stacey Adams’ Equity Theory highlights the importance of a fair equilibrium between an employee’s inputs (effort, loyalty) and outputs (financial rewards, intangibles like recognition). This theory posits that employees compare their inputs and outputs with those of peers, aiming to rectify perceived inequalities (Adams’ Equity Theory, n.d.). Achieving this balance nurtures contentment and motivation.

Personal Application of Equity Theory

In my perspective, Adam’s equity theory resonates as the most practical. Within my organization, equitable recognition is crucial, given the size of the workforce. Balancing individual inputs with intangible recognition, even when financial rewards are limited, can foster a positive workplace environment, enhance behavior, and elevate productivity.

Conclusion

These theories collectively underscore the complex interplay of motivations in organizational settings. Maslow’s hierarchy navigates human needs, McGregor’s theories influence managerial styles, and Adams’ equity theory addresses fairness. Employing these insights can optimize workplace behavior and productivity.

References Cherry, K. (2021, March 19). The 5 Levels of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. Retrieved November 28, 2021, from verywellmind: https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-maslows-hierarchy-of-needs-4136760 McLeod, S. (2020, December 29). Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. Retrieved November 28, 2021, from Simply Psychology: https://www.simplypsychology.org/maslow.html Adam’s Equity Theory. (n.d.). Retrieved November 29, 2021, from Business Jargons: https://businessjargons.com/adams-equity-theory.html Adams’ Equity Theory. (n.d.). Retrieved November 29, 2021, from Mind Tools: https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newLDR_96.htm Theory X and Theory Y. (n.d.). Retrieved November 28, 2021, from Mindtools: https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newLDR_74.htm

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: An Exploration and Critique

Introduction

Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory presents a structured framework encompassing five hierarchical levels of human needs, depicted in the form of a pyramid. This theory postulates that these needs range from the most fundamental to the most complex, shaping human motivation and behavior (Cherry, 2021). The levels, progressing from basic physiological requirements to self-actualization, include:

Physiological needs (food, water, sleep, etc.)
Safety needs (security, stability, etc.)
Love and belongingness needs (relationships, trust, etc.)
Esteem needs (achievement, status, etc.)
Self-actualization needs (personal growth, fulfillment, etc.).

Distinguishing between Deficiency and Growth Needs

This five-stage model can be divided into deficiency needs (D-needs) and growth or being needs (B-needs). The initial four levels, known as D-needs, arise from deprivation and serve as motivators when unfulfilled. The highest level, referred to as B-needs, focuses on self-actualization and becomes a priority when deficiency needs are met (McLeod, 2020).

Critiques of Maslow’s Hierarchy

While Maslow’s hierarchy is recognized for its simplicity, practicality, and intuitive appeal, several criticisms deserve consideration.

Unscientific Approach: One significant criticism revolves around the lack of empirical basis and unreliable samples underlying the theory. The dearth of rigorous empirical research undermines its scientific validity (Winter, 2016).
Ethnocentric Bias: The theory’s emphasis on an individualistic American context, primarily involving educated, male participants, draws criticism for its limited generalizability and potential cultural bias (Winter, 2016).
Exceptions and Individual Differences: The existence of numerous exceptions to the hierarchy challenges its universality. People prioritize self-esteem over love, and unique interests sometimes diverge from the prescribed order (Winter, 2016).
Lack of Universality in Human Behavior: While the theory assumes universal human behavior, individual differences and diverse cultural perspectives suggest that not all people follow the same motivational patterns (Mutuku, 2019).
Social Connections and Need Fulfillment: Critics argue that the hierarchy inaccurately places physiological and safety needs as the most fundamental, overlooking the prerequisite of establishing social connections to fulfill these needs (Mutuku, 2019).
Complexity of Satisfaction Measurement: The theory’s premise that satisfying lower-level needs leads to pursuing higher-level ones overlooks the intricate nature of human satisfaction. Satisfaction is deeply subjective and challenging to predict (Mutuku, 2019).

Personal Reflection

In my view, while Maslow’s pyramid theory offers a simplistic representation of motivational levels, reality often demands a more intricate approach. I believe that my needs across all five levels require simultaneous fulfillment. Balancing fundamental physiological needs while striving for self-actualization challenges me to engage with diverse perspectives, adhere to social norms, meet external expectations, and enhance problem-solving skills for effective decision-making. Consequently, I see Maslow’s hierarchy as an invaluable tool for comprehending not only my own motivational needs but also those of others.

Conclusion

In conclusion, Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs provides a valuable framework for understanding human motivation and behavior. While it is praised for its simplicity and practicality, it is equally essential to acknowledge its limitations and critiques. The complex interplay of individual differences, cultural nuances, and multifaceted motivations underscores the necessity of a comprehensive approach to understanding human needs and behavior.

References Cherry, K. (2021, March 19). The 5 Levels of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. Retrieved November 28, 2021, from verywellmind: https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-maslows-hierarchy-of-needs-4136760 McLeod, S. (2020, December 29). Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. Retrieved November 28, 2021, from Simply Psychology: https://www.simplypsychology.org/maslow.html Mutuku, R. (2019 , September 17). Major criticisms of Maslow hierarchy of needs. Retrieved November 30, 2021, from Tuko: https://www.tuko.co.ke/314803-major-criticisms-maslow-hierarchy-needs.html Winter, T. (2016, Jan 27). Praise & Criticism: Hierarchy of Needs (Maslow). Retrieved November 30, 2021, from Human Performance Technology By DTS: https://blog.dtssydney.com/praise-criticism-hierarchy-of-needs-maslow

Money as a Motivator for Employee Engagement: Exploring the Complexities

Introduction

Motivation is a driving force that underpins individual actions and behaviors in the workplace. Drawing from my personal experiences in various settings, including NGOs, companies, and public services, it is evident that motivations vary among individuals and are often triggered by factors such as promotions, salary increments, and work-related accolades. This paper delves into the multifaceted relationship between financial incentives and employee motivation, exploring the role of money in driving better performance within the workplace.

Understanding the Nature of Motivation

The term “motivation” derives from the word “motive,” which implies a sense of movement. This notion of movement signifies action and reflects our inner desire to achieve meaningful goals (Tanner, 2021). Among the array of factors that prompt this desire to act, financial rewards hold a significant place in discussions about enhancing employee performance.

The Role of Money as a Motivator

Is money the sole motivator in the workplace? This question sparks a nuanced debate, with divergent perspectives based on a range of scholarly insights. The relationship between money and motivation is intricate, as financial incentives intersect with other motivating factors, making it challenging to ascertain money’s precise role as a primary motivator (Lægaard & Bindslev, 2006). While money can indeed boost employee productivity, it is crucial to acknowledge that its motivational impact is contingent upon specific conditions and circumstances (Reed, n.d.).

Conditions for Money to Motivate

Reed (n.d.) identifies four conditions that must align for money to effectively motivate employee performance:

The perceived significance of money to the employee.
The employee’s perception of money as a direct reward for their performance.
The employee’s recognition of the money offered as substantial.
Management’s discretion to reward top performers with additional compensation.

Deconstructing the Money-Engagement Link

A comprehensive meta-analysis conducted by Tim Judge and collaborators assessed 120 years of research encompassing 92 quantitative studies involving over 15,000 individuals and 115 correlation coefficients. The study reveals a weak association between salary and job satisfaction, suggesting that money alone cannot foster engagement (Chamorro-Premuzic, 2013). Consequently, it is apparent that engagement cannot be purchased solely through monetary means. This finding may spark debates, yet it emphasizes that not all employees are primarily driven by financial incentives. Instead, variables like recognition, professional growth, leadership, work-life balance, and organizational environment play pivotal roles in motivating employees (Chadwick, 2019).

Evaluating Pay Raises for Performance

While financial rewards, such as pay raises, can incentivize a more competitive workforce and subsequently elevate productivity under certain circumstances, strategic considerations must guide such practices. Factors influencing decisions regarding salary increases include:

The employee’s performance and skill set.
Skill gaps prevalent in the sector.
A comparative analysis of salaries against market rates.
Input from other employees.
Implementation of a systematic pay raise plan.

Conclusion

In conclusion, it is evident that the efficacy of money as a motivator for employee engagement is multifaceted. Employee needs vary depending on organizational contexts, individual personalities, and situational factors. Performance is influenced by diverse elements, including job satisfaction, training and development opportunities, employee engagement initiatives, and the organizational culture (Periyasamy, 2021). Consequently, while financial incentives remain a valuable motivational tool, it is essential to recognize that money cannot address all organizational needs nor serve as a universal solution. A comprehensive approach, encompassing a range of motivational factors, is necessary to foster sustained engagement and optimal performance within the workplace.

Three Factors Affecting Organizational Behavior Based on Attitudes and Perceptions

Attitude and perception are two significant factors that influence individuals’ daily lives, encompassing their experiences in the workplace and organizational performance (Writer, 2020). Attitude, as defined in psychology, refers to a composite of emotions, beliefs, and behaviors directed toward specific objects, persons, things, or events (Cherry, 2021). This concept’s potency is underscored by the potential for attitudes to wield considerable influence over behavior, shaped by both experiences and upbringing. McLeod (2018a) posits that an individual’s behavior ideally aligns with their attitudes, as people inherently strive for rational and consistent conduct. Perception, on the other hand, encapsulates the sensory engagement with the world, encompassing the recognition of environmental stimuli and corresponding actions (Cherry, 2021). This perceptual process furnishes us with essential environmental insights, guiding our interactions and behaviors.

Factors Influencing Organizational Behavior

Amid a spectrum of factors with positive or negative influences on personal and organizational domains, this study elucidates three pivotal factors that influence behaviors, often hindering a comprehensive understanding of messages:

1. Stereotype

Stereotyping assumes a central role in societal and workplace dynamics, rooted in cognitive constructs that influence individuals’ expectations, beliefs, and perceptions of others based on their social identities.
Such stereotypes prognosticate individuals’ views and behaviors towards their peers in the workplace, bearing potential implications for performance (Sawyer & Judith, 2020).
A favorable work environment hinges on contentment, respect, and safety, underscoring the linkage between positive emotions and productivity.
When stereotyping takes root, it casts a shadow of negativity, breeding feelings of insecurity, anxiety, and unhappiness among individuals, ultimately undermining their focus and productivity (Leonard, 2018).
Addressing stereotypes necessitates a concerted effort to not only dismantle their influence within the workplace but also supplant them with principles of fairness and equity. OpenSesame (n.d.) outlines several strategies to combat stereotypes:
- Augmenting job training to engender preparedness and value perception.
- Crafting task-related background information to foster positive perspectives.
- Emphasizing the role of effort, motivation, and results.
- Remaining vigilant to subtle undermining cues.

2. Prejudice

Prejudice entails an individual’s beliefs, thoughts, feelings, and attitudes concerning specific groups, often uninformed by direct experiences.
Prejudices may manifest surreptitiously, impinging upon workplace dynamics.
Strategies for mitigating prejudice involve:
- Exposing oneself to environments that challenge personal worldviews.
- Engaging in courses that illuminate prejudices and encourage transformative journeys.
- Promoting egalitarianism to redress inherent biases.
- Fostering cross-race friendships as an antidote to prejudice (Mendoza-Denton, 2011).

3. Discrimination

Discrimination encompasses negative behaviors targeting individuals or groups based on attributes such as sex, race, or social class (McLeod, 2008b).
The impact of discrimination transcends physical realms, inflicting psychological distress, including depression, anxiety disorders, and even self-destructive tendencies (Etheridge, 2015).
Weekes (2017) proposes a comprehensive strategy to counter discrimination in the workplace, encompassing:
- Educational initiatives to raise awareness about discrimination.
- Encouraging mutual respect among employees.
- Promptly addressing evidence or complaints of inappropriate behavior.
- Developing, enforcing, and regularly reviewing anti-discrimination workplace policies.

Conclusion

Understanding and navigating the dynamics of these factors—stereotype, prejudice, and discrimination—are pivotal for fostering a positive organizational environment, bolstering employee well-being, engagement, and productivity.

References

Cherry, K. (2021, February 20). Attitudes and Behavior in Psychology. Retrieved November 19, 2021, from verywellmind: https://www.verywellmind.com/attitudes-how-they-form-change-shape-behavior-2795897

Etheridge, N. A. (2015, February 12). Effects of discrimination in the workplace. Retrieved November 20, 2021, from U.S.Army: https://www.army.mil/article/142799/effects_of_discrimination_in_the_workplace

Leonard, K. ( 2018, November 05). How Does Stereotyping Affect the Workplace Environment? Retrieved November 20, 2021, from Chron: https://smallbusiness.chron.com/stereotyping-affect-workplace-environment-78286.html

McLeod, S. (2018a, May 21). Attitudes and behavior. Retrieved November 20, 2021, from Simply Psychology: http://www.simplypsychology.org/attitudes.html

McLeod, S. (2008b). Prejudice and Discrimination. Retrieved November 20, 2021, from Symply Psychology: https://www.simplypsychology.org/prejudice.html

Mendoza-Denton, R. (2011, January 3). The Top 10 Strategies for Reducing Prejudice. Greater Good Magazine.

OpenSesame. (n.d.). Stereotype Threat in the Workplace: What Your Business Should Know. Retrieved November 20, 2021, from OpenSesame: https://www.opensesame.com/site/blog/stereotype-threat-workplace-what-your-business-should-know/

Rush, M. (n.d.). Definition of Prejudice in the Workplace. Retrieved November 20, 2021, from The Nest: https://woman.thenest.com/definition-prejudice-workplace-21560.html

Sawyer, K., & Judith, J. A. (2020, February 28). Stereotypes at Work. Retrieved November 20, 2021, from Oxford Research Encyclopedias: https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190224851.013.50

Weekes, J. (2017, Sep 09). 8 ways to prevent discrimination in your workplace. Retrieved November 20, 2021, from Health & Safety Handbook: https://healthandsafetyhandbook.com.au/bulletin/8-ways-to-prevent-discrimination-in-your-workplace/

Writer, S. (2020, March 29). What Is the Difference Between Perception and Attitude? Retrieved November 20, 2021, from Reference: https://www.reference.com/world-view/difference-between-perception-attitude-63f45c8509bb74e7

Fostering a positive work environment and discouraging negative behaviors

Introduction

The foundation of an organization’s success lies in its work environment, which encompasses values, attitudes, and beliefs of individuals. A positive work environment can foster teamwork, enhance morale, increase productivity, and improve employee retention (Agarwal, 2018). The role of leadership and management is paramount in shaping this environment. While promoting positive behaviors is crucial, addressing and discouraging negative behaviors is equally important. This paper delves into the significance of discouraging negative feelings and behaviors in the workplace, emphasizing their detrimental impact on organizational performance. The strategies to counter negativity and cultivate a positive culture will be discussed.

Negativity in the Workplace

Negativity within an organization can manifest through gossip, attitudes, and communication, adversely affecting productivity, employee engagement, and overall organizational health (Dana & Dornsif, n.d.). It is essential for leaders to proactively address negativity to prevent its escalation, as it can erode trust, demoralize teams, and even result in legal complications (Dana & Dornsif, n.d.).

Addressing Negative Gossip

Negative gossip is a breeding ground for workplace negativity. Leaders must remain vigilant to identify and counteract such behavior. Open communication with key instigators is vital to make them aware of the consequences and impact of their actions. This proactive approach can nip negativity in the bud.

Harnessing Positive Language

Positive language plays a pivotal role in fostering a positive work environment. Leaders should initiate conversations with positive topics, celebrate accomplishments, and commend coworkers’ successes. By focusing on positivity, leaders create a culture of encouragement, motivating others to adopt similar language and behavior.

Empowering Individuals

Empowering employees to address negativity can be a transformative strategy. By granting autonomy and encouraging innovation, leaders enable individuals to take ownership of their workplace environment. Empowered employees can actively counteract negativity by collaboratively identifying solutions to address concerns (Skonnard, 2014).

Conclusion

A negative work environment can significantly undermine organizational success. Leaders must actively discourage negative behaviors to create a culture of positivity. Addressing negative gossip, promoting positive language, and empowering individuals are key strategies to counteract negativity. By nurturing a positive work environment, leaders not only enhance morale and productivity but also contribute to the overall well-being of the organization.

References
Agarwal, D. P. (2018). How To Create A Positive Workplace Culture. FORBES.
Dana & Dornsif, D. (n.d.). Discouraging Negativity in the Workplace. Retrieved November 19,
2021, from UCS Dornsife: https://appliedpsychologydegree.usc.edu/blog/discouragingnegativity-in-the-workplace/
Doyle, A. W. (n.d.). 7 Ways to Foster a Positive Work Environment. Undercover Recruiter.
Mayhew, R. (2018). How Does Behavior Affect Work Performance? Bizfluent.
Skonnard, A. (2014). 7 Ways to Overcome Office Negativity. Inc.
Yim, S. (2018). 8 things companies need to do to foster a positive work environment.
Peoplewave

Hawthorne Experiments and Their Relevance to Organizations Today

During the 1920s and early 1930s, a series of experiments known as the Hawthorne experiments were conducted at Western Electric’s Hawthorne Plant, a manufacturer of telephone hardware for AT&T. The experiments were initiated by a group of individuals including Elton Mayo (Psychologist), Roethlisberger and Whitehead (Sociologists), and William Dickson (company representative) (Perera, 2021).

These experiments encompassed four distinct studies aimed at exploring the impact of worker behavior and workplace conditions on overall company productivity. These studies included the Illumination Experiments, Relay Assembly Test Room Experiments, Experiments in Interviewing Workers, and Bank Wiring Room Experiments (Perera, 2021).

The findings of these experiments revealed that workers exhibited heightened responsiveness to social factors, particularly the attention provided by their managers. Financial incentives were also identified as pivotal in enhancing industrial productivity. Moreover, altering variables and allowing workers to choose their own colleagues, fostering a sense of camaraderie within a group, providing empathetic supervision, and treating employees as valued individuals were identified as genuine catalysts for productivity enhancement (Organizational, n.d.).

These experiments underscore the notion that individual work performance is intricately linked to social factors and job satisfaction. Recognizing and addressing employees’ individual needs, as well as their desire for a sense of belonging and contribution within the organization, are key drivers of enhanced productivity.

In today’s knowledge-driven society, organizations confront challenges posed by technological advancements, shifts in values, and global integration (Lægaard J. & Bindslev M., 2006, p.8). Consequently, organizational leaders must appreciate the significance of valuing employee input, ensuring their voices are heard, and fostering a sense of shared purpose. Modern employees seek recognition not through constant surveillance, but rather by acknowledgment of their commendable efforts by their supervisors. Such attention yields remarkable outcomes (Saha, 2018).

Furthermore, organizations must be mindful not only of assigning employees to appropriate coworker groups but also of addressing gender-related concerns. Today’s organizations recognize that motivation need not solely emanate from grand gestures; small changes can yield substantial improvements in productivity.

In conclusion, the lessons from the Hawthorne experiments remain relevant today. They highlight the potency of social dynamics and job satisfaction in shaping workforce productivity. Modern organizations can apply these insights by fostering a sense of belonging, valuing employee input, and embracing even minor changes for substantial gains in productivity.

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References

Lægaard J. & Bindslev M. (2006). Organizational Theory. Ventus Publishing ApS & bookboon.com.

Organizational Behavior and Human Relations. (n.d.). Retrieved November 13, 2021, from Lumen: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-organizationalbehavior/chapter/the-hawthorne-effect/

Perera, A. (2021). What is the Hawthorne Effect? Simply Psychology.

Saha, P. (2018). The ‘Hawthorne Effect’ in the modern workplace. HRKatha.

Analysis of Four Theoretical Concepts Enhancing Today’s Organizations

Introduction

In the realm of organizational behavior, four foundational theoretical concepts have significantly contributed to shaping modern organizational practices. Lægaard and Bindslev (2006) identify these concepts as scientific management, administrative theory, bureaucracy and organizational structure, and administrative behavior. Each concept offers distinctive insights into task performance and structural dynamics within organizations. This paper undertakes a critical analysis of these concepts and their relevance in today’s organizational landscape, emphasizing the most influential contribution for a specific organizational context.

Scientific Management

Frederick Winslow Taylor’s scientific management theory proposes optimizing individual work processes to enhance the overall management system (Lægaard & Bindslev, 2006). Taylor’s approach, characterized as a bottom-up methodology, stresses the scientific scrutiny of each task to determine the most efficient method (Lægaard & Bindslev, 2006). It underscores meticulous job analysis, workforce selection, training, performance monitoring, and a clear division of roles between management and labor (Scientific Management Theory, n.d.).

Administrative Theory

Administrative theory, as contrasted with scientific management, is concerned with coordinating internal activities within organizations (Lægaard & Bindslev, 2006). Rooted in the hierarchical pyramid structure, this theory, exemplified by Fayol’s principles, offers a top-down approach to management (Administrative Theory by Fayol, 2020). The enduring nature of Fayol’s principles is evident through their incorporation in contemporary workplaces in various forms (Administrative Theory by Fayol, 2020).

Bureaucracy and Organizational Structure

Max Weber’s bureaucracy model introduces a broader perspective on organizational dynamics by considering social and historical factors (Lægaard & Bindslev, 2006). This concept posits that individuals are inherently linked to their roles and must act in accordance with their bureaucratically assigned responsibilities (Lægaard & Bindslev, 2006). While the term “bureaucracy” might evoke negative connotations, Weber’s ideas find relevance in modern large organizations, albeit in a modified form (Lægaard & Bindslev, 2006).

Administrative Behavior

Herbert Simon’s administrative behavior theory focuses on the science of administration, concentrating on organizational decision-making (Mintrom, 2015). Simon’s framework acknowledges the complexity of organizational decisions and emphasizes rational behavior within the context of administrative organization (Mintrom, 2015).

Influential Concept for the Myanmar Forest Department

Considering the unique organizational structure of the Myanmar Forest Department, characterized by a top-down management approach and a blend of hierarchical and functional structures, Weber’s bureaucracy theory resonates most profoundly. The department’s culture aligns with Weber’s premise that individuals are intricately connected to their roles within a system. The hierarchical and centralized decision-making model within the department mirrors Weber’s principles of a bureaucratic structure.

Conclusion

In essence, the analysis of these four theoretical concepts underscores their enduring impact on modern organizational practices. While scientific management and administrative theories offer insights into task efficiency and coordination, bureaucracy’s relevance endures in specific organizational contexts. By recognizing the applicability of these concepts, organizations can derive valuable insights for effective management and decision-making, fostering adaptability in an ever-evolving business landscape.

References

Administrative Theory by Fayol. (2020, August 23). Retrieved November 14, 2021, from
TechnoFunc: https://www.technofunc.com/index.php/leadership-skills-2/leadership-amanagement/item/fayol-s-administrative-theory
Lægaard J. & Bindslev M. (2006). Organizational Theory. Ventus Publishing ApS &
bookboon.com.
Mintrom, M. (2015). Herbert A. Simon, Administrative Behavior: A Study of decision-Making
Processes in Administrative Organization. Oxford Handbooks Online.
Scientific Management Theory. (n.d.). Retrieved November 14, 2021, from Lumen:
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-introductiontobusiness/chapter/scientificmanagement-theor